Barriers to technology transfer resulting from macroeconomic conditions include lack of access to capital, a poorly developed banking sector, lack of available long-term capital, high or uncertain inflation or interest rates, subsidised or average-cost (rather than marginal-cost) prices for energy, high import duties, uncertain stability of tax and tariff policies, investment risk (real and perceived), and risk of expropriation. Policy tools related to macroeconomic conditions to encourage foreign direct investment (FDI) and access to technology can include:
For the buildings, industrial, and energy sectors, the low price of conventional
energy is a barrier that deters investment in alternatives. Different forms
of levy to 'internalise' the environmental costs of fossil fuel use are now
being tried to improve the competitiveness of the cleaner energy sources (Dale
1995), but this may increase perceived policy vulnerability. If the new technology
is saving on scarce inputs or substitutes for dirty fuels which are subsidised,
the technology may not be locally attractive even if it is globally preferable.
Pricing of both the new technology and its complements and substitutes is just
as important . The channels may be open but effective demand may be lacking
because of inefficient pricing or other domestic distortions (Dale 1995).
The lack of financing for technology transfer can reflect the lack of capacity
on the part of the financial sector in developing countries (Manas 1990). Further
efforts are needed to convince banks and other lending institutions of the profitability
of financing environmentally sound technologies and projects. Innovative financing
mechanisms that allow reduced risks to lenders but allow profitable investments
in environmentally sound technologies are one of the main impediments for greater
energy efficiency in most of the developing countries (Pachauri and Bhandari,
1994). Most lending activities in developing countries are geared to corporate
finance, not project finance.
The banking system plays a dominant role in the allocation of capital, and its
health largely determines whether a country will be able to exploit the benefits
of financial integration, including access to and transfer of technology. Banking
systems in many countries exhibit characteristics that can adversely affect
long-term investment, imports
of capital goods and technology transfer, such as:
These problems can be addressed through macroeconomic policies, increased reserve requirements and/or adoption of risk-weighted capital adequacy requirements (World Bank 1997a). It is necessary to build shock absorbers into the financial system and develop mechanisms to respond to instability by:
Most modern economies comprise a mix between government and private sector
investments which varies according to the nature of the economic system and
circumstances, and it has varied over time. Traditionally governments, as well
as their role in social infrastructure (education, health) have dominated investment
in physical infrastructure and large-scale technology development (Rama 1997).
In mixed economies, government finance has dominated where the benefits are
not readily in the form of financial returns, or where such returns are likely
to be very long term (as with technology development) (World Bank 1997a). In
addition governments have traditionally been heavily involved in sectors that
are perceived as central to national economic security and development - such
as the provision of energy. Private sector finance has been more readily involved
in businesses and projects that provide a ready financial return over shorter
timescales than would be required for government investment (Jacobson and Tarr,
1995).
The relationship between government and private finance has however changed
considerably in recent years in many countries. Most relevant to climate change,
this has been particularly clear in the energy sector. Faced with the rising
costs and inadequate performance of state-funded energy developments, many governments
around the world have privatised energy industries, are in the process of doing
so, or are seeking to involve private finance even where energy systems remain
primarily government owned (Dailami and Klein, 1998). For example, governments
may set out terms of access to independent power generators. This has profound
implications for financing the development and international transfer of clean
energy technologies, and makes it all the more important to understand the operation
of private finance and its relationship to the public sector in the funding
of technology transfer (Blomstrom et al., 1995).
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