Appendix XI: Glossary of Terms
Afforestation
The act or process of establishing a forest,
especially on land not previously forested.
Alternative Energy
Energy derived from non-fossil fuel sources.
Anthropogenic Emissions
Emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) associated
with human activities. These include burning of fossil fuels for energy, deforestation,
and land-use changes.
Annex I Countries
Annex I to the Climate Convention (UNFCCC) lists
all the countries in the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD), plus countries with economies in transition, Central, and Eastern Europe
(excluding the former Yugoslavia and Albania). By default the other countries
are referred to as Non-Annex I countries. Under Article 4.2 (a&b) of the
Convention, Annex I countries commit themselves specifically to the aim of returning
individually or jointly to their 1990 levels of GHG emissions by the year 2000.
Annex II Countries
Annex II to the Climate Convention lists all
countries in the OECD. Under Article 4.2 (g) of the Convention, these countries
are expected to provide financial resources to assist developing countries comply
with their obligations such as preparing national reports. Annex II countries
are also expected to promote the transfer of environmentally sound technologies
to developing countries.
Annex B Countries
Annex B in the Kyoto Protocol lists those developed
countries that have agreed to a target for their GHG emissions, including those
in the OECD, Central and Eastern Europe, and the Russian Federation. Not quite
the same but similar to Annex I, which also includes Turkey and Belarus, while
Annex B includes Croatia, Monaco, Liechtenstein, and Slovenia.
Baseline
A projected level of future emissions against
which reductions by project activities could be determined.
Base Year
A common year for calculating emission inventories
or to begin model simulations for future scenarios.
Biofuel
A fuel produced from dry organic matter or combustible
oils produced by plants. Examples of biofuel include alcohol (from fermented
sugar), black liquor from the paper manufacturing process, wood, and soybean
oil.
Biomass
The total dry organic matter or stored energy
content of living organisms. Biomass can be used for fuel directly by burning
it (e.g., wood), indirectly by fermentation to an alcohol (e.g., sugar), or
by extraction of combustible oils (e.g., soybeans).
Carbon Cycle
The natural processes that influence the exchange
of carbon (in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2), carbonates and organic
compounds, etc.) among the atmosphere, ocean, and terrestrial systems. Major
components include photosynthesis, respiration, and decay between atmospheric
and terrestrial systems (approximately 100 billion tons/year (gigatons)); thermodynamic
invasion and evasion between the ocean and atmosphere, operation of the carbon
pump and mixing in the deep ocean (approx. 90 billion tons/year). Deforestation
and fossil fuel burning releases approximately 7 Gt into the atmosphere annually.
The total carbon in the reservoirs is approximately 2000 Gt in land biota, soil,
and detritus, 750 Gt in the atmosphere, and 38,000 Gt in the oceans. (Figures
from IPCC WGI Scientific Assessment 1990.)
Carbon Dioxide
A naturally occurring gas, CO2 is
also a by-product of burning fossil fuels and biomass, as well as land-use changes
and other industrial processes. It is the principal anthropogenic GHG that affects
the earth's temperature. It is the reference gas against which other GHGs are
measured and therefore has a "Global Warming Potential" (GWP) of 1.
Carbon Sequestration
The long-term storage of carbon or CO2
in the forests, soils, ocean, or underground in depleted oil and gas reservoirs,
coal seams, and saline aquifers. Examples include the separation and disposal
of CO2 from flue gases or processing fossil fuels to produce H2-
and CO2-rich fractions, and the direct removal of CO2
from the atmosphere through land use change, afforestation, reforestation, ocean
fertilization, and agricultural practices to enhance soil carbon.
Carbon Sinks
Natural or man-made systems that absorb CO2
from the atmosphere and store them. Trees, plants, and the oceans all absorb
CO2 and, therefore, are carbon sinks.
CFCs
See "Chlorofluorocarbons".
CH4
See "Methane".
Chlorofluorocarbons
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are GHGs covered under
the 1987 Montreal Protocol and used for refrigeration, air conditioning, packaging,
insulation, solvents, or aerosol propellants. As they are not destroyed in the
lower atmosphere, CFCs drift into the upper atmosphere where, given suitable
conditions, they break down ozone. These gases are being replaced by other compounds,
including hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), which
are GHGs covered under the Kyoto Protocol.
Climate Change (UNFCCC definition)
A change of climate which is attributed directly
or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere
and that is in addition to natural climate variability over comparable time
periods.
Climate Convention
See "UN Framework Convention on Climate Change".
Climate Models
Large and complex computer programs used to mathematically
simulate global climate. They are based on mathematical equations derived from
our knowledge of the physics that governs the earthatmosphere system.
Co-generation
The use of waste heat from electric generation,
such as exhaust from gas turbines, for either industrial purposes or district
heating.
Commercialization
Sequence of actions necessary to achieve market
entry and general market competitiveness of new innovative technologies, processes,
and products.
Conference of the Parties (COP)
The supreme body of the UN Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC), comprises countries that have ratified or acceded
to the Framework Convention on Climate Change. The first session of the Conference
of the Parties (COP-1) was held in Berlin in 1995, COP-2 in Geneva 1996, COP-3
in Kyoto 1997, and COP-4 in Buenos Aires. COP-5 will be held in Bonn.
CO2
See "Carbon Dioxide".
Cost-effective
A criterion that specifies that a technology
or measure delivers a good or service at equal or lower cost than current practice,
or the lowest cost alternative for the achievement of a given target.
Decarbonization
A decrease in the specific carbon content of
primary energy or of fuels.
Deforestation
The removal of forest stands by cutting and burning
to provide land for agricultural purposes, residential or industrial building
sites, roads, etc., or by harvesting the trees for building materials or fuel.
Demand-Side Management
Policies and programs designed to reduce consumer
demand for electricity and other energy sources while maintaining (or even increasing)
the services the energy use renders. It helps to reduce the need for constructing
new power facilities.
Dematerialization
A decrease in the material intensity of economic
activity in general, or of individual production processes and end-use applications.
Economic Potential
The portion of technical potential for GHG emissions
reductions or energy efficiency improvements that could be achieved cost-effectively
in the absence of market barriers. The achievement of market potential requires
additional policies and measures to break down market barriers.
Emissions
The release of GHGs and/or their precursors into
the atmosphere over a specified area and period of time.
Emissions Category
The SRES Scenarios are grouped into four categories
of cumulative CO2 emissions (all sources) between 1990 and 2100:
low, medium-low, medium-high, and high emissions. Each category contains scenarios
with a range of different driving forces yet similar cumulative emissions. See
also "(Scenario) Category."
Emission Standard
A level of emission that under law may not be
exceeded.
Energy Intensity
This is the ratio of energy consumption to economic
or physical output. At the national level, energy intensity is the ratio of
total domestic primary energy consumption or final energy consumption to gross
domestic product or physical output.
FCCC
See 'UN Framework Convention on Climate Change'.
Final Energy
Energy supplied that is available to the consumer
to be converted into useful energy (e.g. electricity at the wall outlet).
Fossil Fuels
Carbon-based fuels, including coal, oil, and
natural gas and their derived fuels such as gasoline, synthesis gas from coal,
etc.
Fuel Switching
Policy designed to reduce CO2 emissions
by requiring electric utilities or consumers to switch from high-carbon to low-
carbon fuels (e.g. from coal to gas).
GHGs
See "Greenhouse Gases".
GHG Reduction Potential
Possible reductions in emissions of greenhouse
gasses (quantified in terms of absolute reductions or in percentages of baseline
emissions) that could be achieved through the use of technologies and measures.
Global Warming
The hypothesis that the earth's temperature is
being increased, in part, because of emissions of GHGs associated with human
activities, such as burning fossil fuels, biomass burning, cement manufacture,
cow and sheep rearing, deforestation, and other land-use changes.
Global Warming Potential
A measurement technique to define the relative
contribution of each GHG to atmospheric warming. A GWP can only be calculated
for specified time horizons (e.g. 20 to 500 years) and for given GHG concentration
levels (e.g. current). Both direct and indirect effects are considered. (Indirect
effects include changes in atmospheric chemistry such as ozone formation and
changes in stratospheric water vapor.) CO2 has been assigned a GWP
of 1, against which all other GHGs are compared. For example, methane (CH4)
has a GWP that is currently estimated to be about 21 times greater than that
of CO2 over a 100 year time horizon, and thus CH4 has
a GWP of 21. (Note that in the economic literature GWP usually denotes gross
world product, referrred to as global GDP in this report.)
Greenhouse Effect
The trapping of heat by an envelope of naturally
occurring heat-retaining gases (water vapour, CO2, nitrous oxide
(N2O), CH4, and ozone) that keeps the earth about 30°C
(60°F) warmer than if these gases did not exist.
Greenhouse Gases
Gases in the earth's atmosphere that absorb and
re-emit infrared radiation. These gases occur through both natural and human-influenced
processes. The major GHG is water vapour. Other GHGs include CO2,
N2O,
CH4, ozone, and CFCs.
Gridding
The provision of emission or socio-economic activity
data in spatially highly explicit form.
GWP
See "Global Warming Potential".
HFCs
See "Hydrofluorocarbons".
Harmonization
A procedure to ease comparability of model results
by adopting common (exogenous) input assumptions. Through harmonization, differences
in emissions outcomes resulting from differences in model input assumptions
(e.g. exogenous population growth) can be separated from differences that arise
from different internal model parametrizations (e.g. of the dynamics of technological
change). The scenarios reported here can be classified into three categories:
"fully harmonized" scenarios share population, GDP, and final energy use assumptions
at the level of the four SRES regions (and hence also at the global level) between
1990 and 2100 within prespecified bounds. "Globally harmonized" scenarios share
global population and GDP assumptions at the global level for the 1990 to 2100
period within prespecified bounds (deviations in one 10-year interval are not
considered). "Other scenarios" have adopted alternative assumptions for population
and GDP than the ones suggested for scenario harmonization.
Hydrofluorocarbons
HFCs are among the six GHGs to be curbed under
the Kyoto Protocol. They are produced commercially as a substitute for CFCs.
HFCs are used largely in refrigeration and semi-conductor manufacturing. Their
GWPs range from 1300 to 11,700 times that of CO2 (over a 100 year
time horizon), depending on the HFC.
Illustrative Scenario
A scenario that is illustrative for each of the
six scenario groups reflected in the Summary for Policymakers of this report.
They include four revised "scenario markers" for the scenario groups A1B, A2,
B1 and B2, and two additional scenarios for the A1FI and AIT groups. All scenario
groups are equally sound. See also "(Scenario) Groups" and "(Scenario) Markers".
Intergovernmental Organization (IGO)
Organizations constituted of governments. Examples
include the World Bank, the OECD, and the International Civil Aviation Organization.
The UNFCCC allows accreditation of these IGOs to attend the negotiating sessions.
International Energy Agency (IEA)
Paris-based organization formed in 1973 by the
major oil-consuming nations to manage future oil supply shortfalls.
International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis
(IIASA)
Non-governmental, international, interdisciplinary
research institute located in Laxenburg, Austria. IIASA is supported by the
Academy of Sciences and similar learned societies from 15 countries. Its research
focuses on the human dimensions of global change.
Kyoto Mechanisms (formerly known as Flexibility
Mechanisms)
Economic mechanisms based on market principles
that Parties to the Kyoto Protocol can use in an attempt to lessen the potential
economic impacts of GHG emission-reduction requirements. They include Joint
Implementation (Article 6), the Clean Development Mechanisms (Article 12), and
Emissions Trading (Article 17).
Kyoto Protocol
The Protocol, drafted during the Berlin Mandate
process, that, on entry into force, would require countries listed in its Annex
B (developed nations) to meet differentiated reduction targets for their GHG
emissions relative to 1990 levels by 20082012. It was adopted by all Parties
to the Climate Convention in Kyoto, Japan, in December 1997.
Marker (Scenario)
See "(Scenario) Marker".
Market Penetration
The share of a given market that is provided
by a particular good or service at a given time.
Market Potential (or Currently Realizable Potential)
The portion of the economic potential for GHG
emissions reductions or energy efficiency improvements that could be achieved
under existing market conditions, assuming no new policies and measures.
Measures
Actions that can be taken by a government or
a group of governments, often in conjunction with the private sector, to accelerate
the use of technologies or other practices that reduce GHG emissions.
Methane
One of the six GHGs to be mitigated under the
Kyoto Protocol, it has a relatively short atmospheric lifetime of 10 ±
2 years. Primary sources of CH4 are landfills, coal mines, paddy
fields, natural gas systems, and livestock (e.g., cows and sheep). It has a
GWP of 21 (100 year
time horizon).
Model
A formal representation of a system that allows
quantification of relevant system variables and simulation of systems' behavior,
e.g. the implications on future GHG emissions of alternative demographic, economic
and technological developments (scenarios).
Montreal Protocol
International agreement under the UN which entered
into force in January 1989 to phase out the use of ozone-depleting compounds
such as CFCs, methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, and many others.
NGO
See "Non-Governmental Organization".
Nitrous Oxide
One of the six GHGs to be curbed under the Kyoto Protocol, N2O
is generated by burning fossil fuels and the manufacture of fertilizer. It has
a GWP 310 times that of CO2 (100 year time horizon).
Non-Annex I Parties
The countries that have ratified or acceded to
the UNFCCC that are not included in Annex I of the Convention.
Non-Annex B Parties
The countries that are not included in the Annex
B list of developed nations in the Kyoto Protocol.
Non-Governmental Organization/Observer
Non-Governmental Organization (NGOs) include
registered non-profit organizations and associations from business and industry,
environmental groups, cities and municipalities, academics, and social and activist
organizations.
No Regrets
Actions that result in GHG limitations and abatement,
and that also make good environmental and economic sense in their own right.
Ozone
Ozone (O3) in the troposphere, or
lower part of the atmosphere, can be a constituent of smog and acts as a GHG.
It is created naturally and also by reactions in the atmosphere that involve
gases resulting from human activities, including nitrogen oxides (NOx),
from motor vehicles and power plants. The Montreal Protocol seeks to control
chemicals that destroy ozone in the stratosphere (upper part of the atmosphere),
where the ozone absorbs ultra-violet radiation.
PAMs
See "Policies and Measures".
Perfluorocarbons
Among the six GHGs to be abated under the Kyoto
Protocol. Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) are a by-product of aluminum smelting and
uranium enrichment. They also are the replacement for CFCs in manufacturing
semiconductors. The GWP of PFCs is 65009200 times that of CO2 (100
year time horizon).
PFCs
See 'Perfluorocarbons'.
Policies and Measures
In UNFCCC parlance, policies are actions that
can be taken and/or mandated by a government often in conjunction with
business and industry within its own country, as well as with other countries
to accelerate the application and use of successful measures to curb
GHG emissions. Measures are technologies, processes, and practices used to implement
policies that, if employed, would reduce GHG emissions below anticipated future
levels. Examples might include carbon or other energy taxes, standardized fuel
efficiency standards for automobiles, etc. "Common and co-ordinated" or "harmonized"
policies refer to those adopted jointly by Parties. (This could be by region,
such as the European Union (EU), or by countries that comprise a given classification,
for example, all Annex I nations.)
Precautionary Principle
From the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
(Article 3): Parties should take precautionary measures to anticipate, prevent
or minimize the causes of climate change and mitigate its adverse effects. Where
there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific
certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing such measures taking
into account that policies and measures to deal with climate change should be
cost-effective so as to ensure global benefits at the lowest possible cost.
Primary Energy
Energy embodied in natural resources (e.g., coal,
crude oil, sunlight, uranium) that has not undergone any anthropogenic conversion
or transformation.
Quantified Emissions Limitations and Reductions
Objectives
Abbreviated to QELROs, these are the GHG emissions
reduction commitments made by developed countries listed in Annex B of the Protocol.
(See also "Targets and Timetables".)
Regulatory Measures
Rules or codes enacted by governments that mandate
product specifications or process performance characteristics.
Renewables
Energy sources that are, within a short timeframe
relative to the earth's natural cycles, sustainable, and include non-carbon
technologies such as solar energy, hydropower, and wind as well as carbon-neutral
technologies such as biomass.
Research, Development, and Demonstration
Scientific/technical research and development
of new production processes or products, coupled with analysis and measures
that provide information to potential users regarding the application of the
new product or process; demonstration tests, and feasibility of applying these
products processes via pilot plants and other pre-commercial applications.
Scenario
A plausible description of how the future may
develop, based on a coherent and internally consistent set of assumptions ("scenario
logic") about key relationships and driving forces (e.g., rate of technology
change, prices). Note that scenarios are neither predictions nor forecasts.
(Scenario) Category
The SRES Scenarios are grouped into four categories
of cumulative CO2 emissions (all sources) between 1990 and 2100:
low, medium-low, medium-high, and high emissions. Each category contains scenarios
with a range of different driving forces yet similar cumulative emissions. See
also "Emissions Category".
(Scenario) Family
Scenarios that have a similar demographic, societal,
economic and technical-change storyline. Four scenario families comprise the
SRES scenario set: A1, A2, B1 and B2.
(Scenario) Group
Scenarios within a family that reflect a consistent
variation of the storyline. The A1 scenario family includes four groups designated
as A1T, A1C, A1G and A1B that explore alternative structures of future energy
systems. In the Summary for Policymakers, the A1C and A1G groups have been combined
into one "Fossil Intensive" A1FI scenario group. The other three scenario families
consist of one group each. The SRES scenario set reflected in the SPM thus consists
of six distinct scenario groups, all of which are equally sound and together
capture the range of uncertainties
associated with driving forces and emissions.
(Scenario) Marker
A scenario that was originally posted in draft
form on the SRES website to represent a given scenario family. The choice of
markers was based on which of the initial quantifications best reflected the
storyline, and the features of specific models. Markers are no more likely than
other scenarios, but are considered by the SRES writing team as illustrative
of a particular storyline. They are included in revised form in this report.
These scenarios have received the closest scrutiny of the entire writing team
and via the SRES open process. Scenarios have also been selected to illustrate
the other two scenario groups (see also "Scenario Group" and "Illustrative Scenario".
(Scenario) Set
A set of scenarios developed using a particular
methodologic approach. The SRES scenario set comprises 40 scenarios grouped
into four scenario families, seven (six in the SPM) scenario groups and four
(cumulative CO2) emissions categories.
(Scenario) Storyline
A narrative description of a scenario (or a family
of scenarios) highlighting the main scenario characteristics, relationships
between key driving forces and the dynamics of their evolution.
Standardization
Adopting standardized numerical values to improve
model and scenario comparability. In this report, emissions are standardized
for the two reporting years 1990 and 2100 across all models and scenarios, and
individual scenario differences thereafter are corrected for differences between
original model outputs and standardized values ("offsets"). (Base year differences
reflect scientific uncertainty in source/sink strengths for many GHGs as well
as differences in model calibration and simulation time horizons, e.g. for some
models 1990 is a projected year as simulations begin by an earlier base year.
SF6
See "Sulfur Hexafluoride".
Sinks (UNFCCC Definition)
Any process or activity or mechanism that removes
a GHG, aerosol, or precursor of a GHG into the
atmosphere.
Source (UNFCCC Definition)
Any process or activity that releases a GHG,
aerosol, or precursor of a GHG into the atmosphere.
Standards/Performance Criteria
Set of rules or codes that mandate or define
product performance (e.g., grades, dimensions, characteristics, test methods,
rules for use).
Structural Change
Changes, for example, in the relative share of
GDP produced by the industrial, agricultural, or services sectors of an economy;
or (more generally) systems transformations whereby some components are either
replaced or potentially substituted by other ones.
Sulfur Hexafluoride
One of the six GHGs to be curbed under the Kyoto
Protocol. Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) is largely used in heavy industry
to insulate high-voltage equipment and to assist in the manufacturing of cable-cooling
systems. Its GWP is 23,900 times that of CO2 (100 year time horizon).
Targets and Timetables (see also QELROs)
A target is the reduction of a specific percentage
of GHG emissions (e.g., 6%, 7%) from a baseline date (e.g., "below 1990 levels")
to be achieved by a set date, or timetable (e.g., 20082012). For example,
under the Kyoto Protocol's formula, the EU has agreed to reduce its GHG emissions
by 8% below 1990 levels by the 20082012 commitment period. These targets
and timetables are, in effect, a cap on the total amount of GHG emissions that
can be emitted by a country or region in a given time period.
Technical Potential
The amount by which it is possible to reduce
GHG emissions or improve energy efficiency by using a technology or practice
in all applications in which it could technically be adopted, without consideration
of its costs or practical feasibility.
Technology
A systems of means towards particular ends that
includes both hardware and social information, e.g. a piece of equipment or
a technique for performing a particular activity.
Trace Gas
A minor constituent of the atmosphere. The most
important trace gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect are CO2,
ozone, CH4, N2O, ammonia, nitric acid, ethylene, sulfur
dioxide (SO2), nitric oxide, CFCs, HFCs
HCFCs, SF6, methyl chloride, carbon
monoxide, and carbon tetrachloride.
UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
A treaty signed at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio
de Janeiro by more than 150 countries. Its ultimate objective is the "stabilization
of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent
dangerous anthropogenic (human-induced) interference with the climate system".
While no legally binding level of emissions is set, the treaty states an aim
by Annex I countries to return these emissions to 1990 levels by the year 2000.
The treaty took effect in March 1994 upon the ratification of more than 50 countries;
a total of some 160 nations have now ratified. In March 1995, the UNFCCC held
the first session of the COP, the supreme body of the Convention, in Berlin.
Its Secretariat is based in Bonn, Germany. In the biennium 200001, its
approved budget and staffing level are approximately US$12 million annually
with approximately 80 personnel.
Values
Values are based on individual preferences, and
the total value of any resource is the sum of the values of the different individuals
involved in the use of the resource. The values that are the foundation of the
estimation of costs are measured in terms of the willingness to pay (WTP) by
individuals to receive the resource or by the willingness of individuals to
accept payment (WTA) to part with the resource.
Voluntary Measures
Measures to reduce GHG emissions that are adopted by firms or
other actors in the absence of government mandates. Voluntary measures help
make climate-friendly products or processes more readily available or encourage
consumers to incorporate environmental values in their market choices.