3.2. Aerosol Emission and Formation in Aircraft Plumes
3.2.1. Volatile Aerosol Precursors
3.2.1.1. Water Vapor3.2.2. Volatile Particles
3.2.1.2. Sulfur Species
3.2.1.3. Chemi-ions
3.2.1.4. Nitrogen Species
3.2.1.5. Hydrocarbons
3.2.2.1. Basic Processes3.2.3. Soot and Metal Particles
3.2.2.2. Observations and Modeling of Volatile Particles and Sulfur Conversion
3.2.3.1. Soot3.2.4. Contrail and Ice Particle Formation
3.2.3.2. Metal Particles
3.2.4.1. Formation Conditions and Observations
3.2.4.2. Freezing of Contrail Particles
3.3. Regional and Global-Scale Impact of Aviation on
Aerosols
3.3.1. Global Aircraft Emissions and Aerosol Sources
3.3.2. Sulfate Aerosol
3.3.2.1. Stratosphere3.3.3. Observations of Aviation-Produced Aerosol and Sulfate Aerosol Changes
3.3.2.2. Troposphere
3.3.2.3. Differences between the Upper Troposphere and Lower Stratosphere
3.3.4.1. Subsonic Aircraft3.3.5. Soot
3.3.4.2. Supersonic Aircraft
3.4. Contrail Occurrence and Persistence and Impact
of Aircraft Exhaust on Cirrus
3.4.1. Cirrus and Contrails
3.4.2. Cirrus and Contrail Models
3.4.3. Contrail Occurrence
3.4.4. Contrail Properties
3.4.5. Impact of Aircraft Exhaust on Cirrus Clouds and
Related Properties
3.5. Long-Term Changes in Observed Cloudiness and Cloud-Related
Parameters
3.5.1. Changes in the Occurrence and Cover of Cirrus
Clouds
3.5.1.1. Surface Observations3.5.2. Changes in Other Climate Parameters
3.5.1.2. ISCCP Observations
3.5.1.3. HIRS Observations
3.5.1.4. SAGE Observations
3.5.1.5. Upper Bound for Aviation-Induced Changes in Cirrus Clouds
3.5.2.1. Sunshine Duration and Surface Radiation3.5.3. Limitations in Observed Climate Changes
3.5.2.2. Temperature
3.6. Radiative Properties of Aerosols, Contrails, and
Cirrus Clouds
3.6.1. Direct Radiative Impact of Aerosols
3.6.2. Radiative Properties of Cirrus Clouds
3.6.3. Radiative Properties of Contrail Clouds
3.6.4. Radiative Forcing of Line-Shaped Contrail Cirrus
3.6.5. Radiative Impact of Additional or Changed Cirrus
and Other Indirect Cloud Effects
3.7. Parameters of Future Changes in Aircraft-Produced
Aerosol and Cloudiness
3.7.1. Changes in Climate Parameters
3.7.2. Changes in Subsonic Aircraft
3.7.3. Expected Changes for Supersonic Aircraft
3.7.4. Mitigation Options
DAVID W. FAHEY AND ULRICH SCHUMANN
Lead Authors:
S. Ackerman, P. Artaxo, O. Boucher, M.Y. Danilin, B. K�rcher, P. Minnis,
T. Nakajima, O.B. Toon
Contributors:
J.K. Ayers, T.K. Berntsen, P.S. Connell, F.J. Dentener, D.R. Doelling,
A. D�pelheuer, E.L. Fleming, K. Gierens, C.H. Jackman, H. J�ger, E.J. Jensen,
G.S. Kent, I. K�hler, R. Meerk�tter, J.E. Penner, G. Pitari, M.J. Prather,
J. Str�m, Y. Tsushima, C.J. Weaver, D.K. Weisenstein
Review Editor:
K.-N. Liou
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