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Europe and CIS CountriesRegional InitiativesThe first European environment programme of the European Union, the Environmental Action Programme (EAP), was adopted in November 1973 as a follow-up to the 1972 Stockholm Conference. Its main principles were incorporated into the 1987 amendments to the 1957 Treaty of Rome (the 1987 Single European Act). The EAP was updated and extended in 1977, 1983, 1987, and 1992, and implementation of the Fifth EAP for the EU is still ongoing. It emphasizes a dual and co-ordinated approach in which high environmental standards set through regulations for almost all pollutant emissions, discharges, and wastes are combined with positive incentives for industry. The latter aim to further improve performance through development of new processes, products, and techniques. The Maastricht Treaty, adopted in 1994, spells out a comprehensive agenda for sustainable, non-inflationary growth in ways that demonstrate respect for the environment. More than 200 instruments, regulations, and directives have been called into play to improve environmental quality throughout Europe and to counter transnational and global ills.After the changeover from centrally planned economies, and in order to create a framework for expanded co-operation, steps were taken to pave the way for the "Environment for Europe" process. The first pan-European Conference of Environmental Ministers took place at Dobríš Castle, then in Czechoslovakia, in 1991, attended by 36 ministers. The Dobríš Conference requested the preparation of the pan-European Dobríš Assessment and the development of an environmental programme for the whole of Europe. Further conferences in this process took place in Lucerne, Switzerland, in 1993 and in Sofia, Bulgaria, in 1995. The next conference will take place in Aarhus, Denmark, in 1998. At the Lucerne Conference, environmental ministers from 50 countries endorsed the short-term Environmental Action Programme for Central and Eastern Europe (EAP/CEE). The programme-developed by an international task force composed of the European Commission, the World Bank, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and the EU-provides a methodology for integrating environmental concerns into the economic transition in the CEE region. There are three major programme components: setting priorities, strengthening institutional capacity, and developing cost-effective financing for environmental action. International mechanisms for environmental cost-sharing and the effective co-ordination of assistance under this programme have yet to be developed. The EAP/CEE places considerable emphasis on the human health consequences of environmental degradation. In particular, drinking-water contamination and lead and particulate pollution are key short-term concerns. Opportunities for implementing low-cost measures to address these concerns have been identified. Based on an assessment of a number of "hot spots" in the CEE countries, the EAP/CEE recommended specific "win-win" investments that would benefit both the economy and the environment. For example, phasing out subsidies on energy, raw materials, and water can encourage conservation, thereby reducing waste and pollution. Since the Lucerne Conference, national environmental policy documents have been prepared in 13 CEE countries, some of which are national environmental action plans that adopt the EAP/ CEE methodology. Institution- strengthening is considered the weakest component in most countries. The environmental priorities identified are drinking-water supply, air pollution control, and wastewater treatment (REC, 1995b). Regional Environment Centres (RECs) are now assisting with the implementation of the EAP/CEE. The REC in Hungary, for instance, is working with 15 CEE countries. Since its establishment in 1990, it has awarded more than 2,000 grants to environmental NGOs in CEE to increase public participation in environmental issues. Since the Sofia Conference, the REC network is being expanded to the CIS. The Sofia Conference issued the Sofia Declaration, reaffirming Governments' commitment to co-operate in the field of environmental protection in Europe (UN-ECE, 1995). It acknowledged that, although progress is being made in a number of areas, many serious problems remain, and it stressed the urgent need for further integration of environmental considerations into all sectoral policies. The Conference endorsed the Environmental Programme for Europe (EPE), based on the Dobríš Assessment. The EPE is linked to Agenda 21 and regional environmental treaties and conventions, and describes the actions required to address, at the European level, the following major sets of issues:
Thus the EPE encompasses all the environmental issues of concern to Europe in a long-term perspective, constituting the first set of general objectives in the environment field adopted at the pan-European level. A number of East-West initiatives are under way to assist countries undergoing economic transition with their environmental agendas. The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UN- ECE) is active in fostering East-West dialogue and co-operation on environmental matters. It has developed a number of regional environmental conventions in the fields of transboundary water, industrial accidents, and air pollution as well as being active in the preparation of ministerial conferences. The EU has a range of co-operative programmes, including PHARE and TACIS. PHARE (initially Poland, Hungary-EU Assistance for the Reforms of the Economies) now assists 11 CEE countries in the development of regulatory frameworks for the environment, pollution monitoring and assessment, and installation of corrective action and abatement strategies for priority pollution concerns. The TACIS (Technical Assistance for the CIS Countries) programme helps CIS countries to move away from centrally planned to market economies and to strengthen their democratic societies. Environment ranks among the priority sectors of this programme (EC, 1994).
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In addition to the broad-brush processes, a large number of policies and programmes are specifically targetted. Many focus on sectoral areas:
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Other initiatives are specifically designed to tackle environmental problems affecting a defined geographical area. Many of the seas, including the Aral, Baltic, Black, and Mediterranean, and some major river basins, including the Danube and Rhine, have such programmes or action plans. The "Green Lungs of Europe" is another collaborative effort involving seven countries (Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, and the Ukraine). It is designed to create sustainable development zones through integrated ecosystem and economic management. There are a range of regional and subregional agreements that relate specifically to the environment (See ) and form a common basis for policy setting. Some agreements focus on sectoral issues; others, on geographical areas; and a few focus on both. Where commitments have been implemented by countries and sufficient time has elapsed for the agreement to have had an impact, results have demonstrated the beneficial role of multilateral policy options approaches. (See Box 3.14.) In addition to Government-level initiatives, numerous international organizations and institutions provide vital support for the environmental movement and for NGOs in the region, as well as providing funds for nature protection, environmental education, and research.
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