Forest clearance
The annual rate of change in total forest area (land with at least 10 per cent tree cover and 0.5 ha area) from 1990 to 2000 for the whole of Africa was estimated to be -0.74 per cent, equivalent to losing more than 5 million ha of forest a year, an area roughly the size of Togo and the highest rate of any region. Countries with the highest annual deforestation rates are Burundi (9.0 per cent), Comoros (4.3 per cent), Rwanda (3.9 per cent) and Niger (3.7 per cent). In terms of area deforested during 1990-2000, Sudan tops the list with 9.6 million ha, followed by Zambia (8.5 million ha), Democratic Republic of Congo (5.3 million ha), Nigeria (4.0 million ha) and Zimbabwe (3.2 million ha). Only seven countries increased their forest areas over the same period (FAO 2001a).
Economic development strategies and lax implementation of forest protection regulations are the principal pressures on forest resources. Governments in Western and Central Africa have given concessions to private firms for logging selected species. The timber is mostly exported to earn foreign exchange. In countries such as Angola, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Sierra Leone political instability and war have further contributed to deforestation. Forest clearance has negative economic impacts through loss of future export opportunities, tourism revenue and pharmaceutical development options. The annual cost of deforestation in Uganda has been conservatively estimated at US$3-6 million (NEMA 2000).
Weak and ineffective policies have contributed to forest clearance. In Eastern Africa, for example, forestry departments throughout the 1980s were given a low priority, resulting in weak or outdated policies, laws and regulations governing forest management. In Southern Africa, most forestry policies and laws were enacted in the 1970s, and have since become obsolete with small and non-deterrent fines for non-compliance. Policy failures in Western Africa include lack of attention to developing alternative energy sources, inadequate funding of forestry departments, lack of support for private investment in sustainable forest management and reforestation, and out-dated concepts of forest conservation and community participation. However, levels of awareness on forestry issues have been greatly raised through international lobbying, extension services and the activities of NGOs. Several countries are now correcting these institutional weaknesses, and forest policies are being reviewed, revised or redrafted. Communities have become more involved in policy making, as well as in implementing forest management strategies. International cooperative initiatives have been developed in Southern and Central Africa (FAO 2001b).
Clearing of forests for agriculture has played a significant role in deforestation. In Northern Africa, 13 per cent of forest cover was lost during 1972-92, and in Nigeria deforestation of riparian forests and savannahs for agricultural development was estimated at more than 470 000 ha a year during 1978-96 (DoF Nigeria 1996). In Africa as a whole, 60 per cent of the tropical forest cleared between 1990 and 2000 has been converted into permanent agricultural smallholdings (FAO 2001a).
Some large-scale reforestation programmes have been implemented but most have introduced monocultures without the biological diversity of the natural forests they replace. While some of the more arid countries have increased the size of their forests, reforestation programmes have done little to slow deforestation rates, particularly in moist tropical forests (ADB 2000, FAO 2001a).
Another response has been to designate forests as protected areas. Some 11.7 per cent of African forests have protected area status (FAO 2001a). While the establishment of protected areas has increased the availability and quality of information on forest resources, promoted public awareness and created refuges for endangered species, these areas will meet their objectives only if protection measures are enforced (see box).
Commercial forestry management has evolved towards a more sustainable philosophy. The forest ecosystem is becoming the focus of management, rather than timber extraction, and non-timber forest resources are given consideration. In Southern Africa, there is a growing realization of the importance of trade in forest products from sustainably managed forests, and a small proportion of forests in Namibia, South Africa and Zimbabwe have been certified by the Forest Stewardship Council (FAO 2001a).
Community-based forest management schemes are also being established, with considerable benefits to community income levels and forest conservation. In Eastern Africa, agroforestry schemes are being introduced to meet the dual need for agricultural production and tree products from smallholdings. In Kenya, afforestation and reforestation at household and commercial scale have been able to supply people with fuelwood, poles, sawn wood, wood-based panels, and pulp and paper.
